Although I had seen the Maasai on television and in documentaries before I came to Tanzania, I was still shocked to find they were a bead working, nomadic, plains culture bearing striking similarities to my own nation, the Wichita and Affiliated Tribes. Like the plains tribes of North America, the Maasai are a pastoral, tribal community that have endured the many attempts outside forces tried to remove and “civilize” their distinct and vivid culture.
Being from an indigenous culture creates the unusual dichotomy of having to be “traditional” and “modern,” balancing the ability to function in today’s world with the maintenance of customs. Just as the plains tribes have had to navigate the social and political views of the United States and Canada for hundreds of years, the Maasai people of East Africa have also been forced to suffer various government interventions throughout the history of their people. Over time, the Maasai have been able to hold on to their identity, even through hardships and struggles maintaining an impressive commitment to their culture.
Some Historical Background on the Maasai
The Maasai are a Nilotic group that first lived in the Nile River Valley, later moving south from the vicinity of Lake Turkana to the border area between Kenya and Tanzania.[1] Arriving in the area around the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maasai became the preeminent group of the region. By the next century, the Maasai occupied nearly all of the Great Rift Valley and grazed cattle as far as the Tanga Coast.[2] Although the Maasai were largely left out of the slave raiding in the Indian Ocean trade, German and later British colonialism would prove to be disastrous for them.
The era between 1883 and 1902 was known as the Emutai, with livestock and human pandemics causing tremendous damage to the Maasai people. Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia and Rinderpest decimated Maasai cattle, with a German lieutenant in Tanganyika estimating that 90% of their cattle and nearly half of the wild game in the region had been killed by the diseases.[3] The depopulation of grazing animals allowed thornbush to propagate and dominate the landscape, providing the ideal habitat for Tsetse flies carrying Sleeping Sickness, further harming the livestock in the region.[4] Additionally, horrific and widespread Smallpox epidemics affected the people of East Africa, who had no natural immunity to European endemic diseases, making it a swift executioner. Those that did manage to survive this pervasive infection were left with permanent scarring. German physicians stationed in the same region reported that about half of all Africans they saw, bore the characteristic pock marks that come from Smallpox infection.[5] Following droughts in 1897 and 1898,[6] it was thought that about two-thirds of the Maasai population had died of disease and crop failure.[7] Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann described the horrifying impact of the Emutai after travelling through Maasai territory:
“There were women wasted to skeletons from whose eyes the madness of starvation glared … warriors scarcely able to crawl on all fours, and apathetic, languishing elders. Swarms of vultures followed them from high, awaiting their certain victims.”[8]
Following this disastrous time of adversity, treaty after treaty made with British authorities in Kenya reduced Maasai lands to make room for settlers and large-scale ranching, until their territory was reduced by over 60%. After these reductions, the Maasai were essentially enclosed into only a handful of Kenyan districts. In colonial Tanganyika the Maasai did not fare much better, with land seizures taking place in the area between Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru as well.
Some Historical Background on the Wichita
The history of the Wichita tribe has followed a very similar path of government intrusion, forced removal, and endured adversity. In the 16th century, the Wichita, a semi-nomadic Caddoan group, were centered around Kansas, where they first interacted with European explorers.[9] As the Wichita moved further south toward southern Oklahoma and the Red River Valley, newfound trading relationships and alliances with groups like the Comanches and Puebloans helped the Wichita thrive.[10] While these lucrative connections made trade and interaction with Europeans from colonies in Texas and Louisiana increase, the threat of disease also increased. Just like the Maasai were to experience a century later, the Wichita had limited immunity to diseases brought by European settlers, which would prove catastrophic in the decades to come. An epidemic, believed to be Smallpox, in 1777 and 1778 killed over one third of the Wichita people.[11]
After the Louisiana Purchase and Texan Independence, even more settlers flocked to Wichita lands and increasing pressure was put on the tribe. This left the Wichita in a vulnerable position, opening the group up for what would become the “Days of Darkness,” characterized by disease, starvation, and land seizures. By 1855, a reservation was demarcated on the Brazos River, opening much of north Texas up for European settlement. This was not enough for the Texan settlers however, so the Wichita were further removed beyond the Red River to an Oklahoma reservation only a few years later. During the Civil War, Confederate soldiers forced the removal of Union-sympathizing Native nations, including the Wichita, north to Kansas. There, with no winter supplies and no farmland to grow crops, many languished and suffered. At the same time, Smallpox and Cholera epidemics moved through the Wichita people, only adding onto the dire situation they already faced. In the end, only 822 Wichitas returned to the Indian Territory when the war ended, after many had died of starvation, exposure, and disease.[12]
In the Postbellum era, like many other tribes, the Wichitas had to contend with the breakup of tribal lands into allotments, the separation of their children into Indian boarding schools, laws that made traditional religious and ceremonial practices illegal, and the tremendous loss of culture that resulted from these developments.
The Impact of Conservation Tourism
As big game tourism and conservation began to become more popular, even more Maasai territory was seized for the purpose of creating national parks and game reserves. In Kenya, this included Amboseli National Park, the Maasai Mara, Nairobi National Park, Tsavo, Samburu National Reserve, and Lake Nakuru National Park. Tanzania’s included Serengeti National Park, Tarangire, Lake Manyara National Park, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.[13] Serengeti National Park alone covers over 14,750 square kilometers of the Maasai homeland.[14] These trends of commandeering Maasai property for national interests, continued even in the post-colonial era, with many of these parks being established after the independence of Kenya and Tanzania. The Maasai community in the Ngorongoro Highlands alone has lived under the constant threat of removal for well over a decade.
In the summer after I visited Tanzania, the nation was rocked by protests when the government sought the removal of Maasai villages for the establishment of a UAE-operated game reserve near Loliondo. It is believed that the new reserve will essentially function as a private, luxury hunting park for the royal family of the United Arab Emirates. Over 70,000 Maasai people live in the area the Tanzanian government is seeking to appropriate for the project, with over 2,000 having been forced to flee over the border into Kenya when removal efforts turned violent.[15] Currently, the relationship between the Maasai and the Tanzanian government is beginning to reach a boiling point, with restrictions on grazing and water use being pointed to as the potential beginning to a new era of Emutai.[16]
This tension bleeds into public perception, where there is everyday discrimination against Maasai people. As explained to me by a resort employee in Moshi, Tanzania, “There are people and then there are Maasai.” Within Tanzania, there are even calls to forcibly detribalize and assimilate the Maasai. Similar sentiments exist amongst some travelers, who view the Maasai more as touristic props than actual people. When I befriended the Maasai security guard at my Serengeti camp, Kiyongo, he told me that I was the first guest to have ever asked his name. He had worked there for two years. Ultimately, the Tanzanian government is content to use the Maasai for travel ads, but they hope that this is the extent of Maasai influence and sovereignty.
Traditional Wichita lands have also been taken for reserve and parkland, such as the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge, the oldest territory managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.[17] Located next to Fort Sill, this refuge and the aforementioned military base hold almost the entirety of the Wichita Mountains, an important place in Wichita culture. Medicine Bluffs, a sacred place located within the mountain range, was long blocked from public access by the U.S. Army. For generations, the bluffs served as a place of importance in Wichita religion with fasting, meditation, and ceremonies occurring there. My great grandmother, Berdena Holder, described the importance of the site thus:
“As a child I was told [Medicine Bluffs] was the first place the Wichita tribe saw the Great Spirit…. He appeared to them on the bluff – it’s a holy place to us.”
The symbolism is not lost on me that an army base from the Indian Wars, and one of America’s first conservation projects, were intentionally placed on my culture’s most sacred site. During much of the pioneering conservation movement of the 19th century, conservationists and the U.S. military worked hand in hand. After all, how do you think all those interesting natural sites were emptied of people? Today, dozens of other National Wildlife Refuges, Historic Sites, and State Parks are located in the Wichita homelands across what is now Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma.
Perhaps more famously, Yellowstone National Park also required Native displacement to exist. Before the establishment of the park in 1872, several tribes used the area as seasonal hunting grounds. Additionally, some bands of Eastern Shoshone lived in the area year-round. Those Eastern Shoshone bands ceded the land to the United States by treaty in 1868 but retained seasonal hunting rights as part of the treaty negotiations. The U.S. never ratified that treaty, and still doesn’t recognize rights granted to the Eastern Shoshone or other tribes that used the region, despite upholding this same treaty to displace them.[18] After the Sheepeater Indian War of 1879, Philetus Norris, the park Superintendent, even built fortifications to keep the Shoshone out of the park land.[19]
This is not unique to just these examples. Across the United States, there are likely hundreds if not thousands of Federal and State protected sites that are on land dispossessed from Native people through military intervention, lopsided treaties, and government appropriation.
What is the Situation Today for the Maasai and Wichita?
In short, the Maasai people went from living on some of the best, most fertile land in the region to being largely excluded from large swathes of their homeland. Or, as in the case of Ngorongoro, allowed to stay with the caveat that they live a fully traditional, tribal lifestyle. Although this is under the guise of conservation, this ultimately forces the Maasai people into becoming a tourist attraction for those visiting the conservation area. It seems that the Maasai are mostly seen as inconvenient by the Tanzanian government, other than when they use Maasai art and images for the promotion of tourism. Even beach resorts in Zanzibar and luxury Safari camps hire Maasai warriors, in traditional clothing, to be “security” at their establishments.
Imagine arriving at your campsite in Yellowstone to find a Shoshone warrior, complete with buckskin and warbonnet, serving tourists on the land stolen from his people. Or imagine the U.S. government saying that the Shoshone can live at the edges of the park, but only if they live in Tipis and eschew most modern conveniences.
While those ideas may sound ridiculous, Native cultures in North America are still commodified in much the same way the Maasai are in Tanzania. Native motifs and imagery adorn everything from household brands to Major League Baseball teams and help give an exotic flare to tourism in the Western United States.[20] And if you don’t think Anti-Native discrimination still exists, just read an Instagram or FaceBook comment section. You’ll likely find more comments reminiscent of 1824 than 2024.
What This Means for You
To be clear, I’m not trying to steer you away from visiting Tanzania or the National Parks of the American West, but I want you to think about these subjects as you travel. Also, when making your plans, look into the companies you’re mulling over. Some large safari companies have a horrible track record with the Maasai,[21] while others give back to Maasai communities. I found that Zara Tanzanian Adventures, the company I traveled with, had a good track record with the Maasai and have their own charity that benefits their communities.
While the Maasai dependence on tourism is unfortunate, Maasai people having positions at safari camps and resorts provides valuable income to their families and villages. In the rural areas outside the Tanzanian National Parks, this income can make the difference between access to transportation and medical care or lack thereof, especially with so few other job opportunities in the region. My advice is to treat these Maasai employees respectfully, and support Maasai businesses and initiatives when possible.
Instead of buying artwork at the Arusha Cultural Heritage Centre, consider purchasing items from independent Maasai craftsmen. This not only provides revenue streams to Maasai villages, but you can often acquire authentic items at more affordable prices. The Maasai Cultural Museum next to Meserani Snake Park in Kisongo is an excellent place to learn about Maasai culture while buying from local sellers. In fact, I was told that the items in the gift shop were being sold to fund the building of a hospital in the area.
If you find yourself visiting a U.S. National Park or other parkland here in America, learn about the history of the Indigenous people that once lived there. If you happen to be in an area with a Native community, consider visiting their museums, art galleries, and stores. Instead of buying “Native” crafts of dubious origin from some giftshop, think about purchasing from Native artists. Not too far from the Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge is McKee’s Indian Store, a local enterprise owned by the Caddo Nation with no shortage of Native art, jewelry, and other items to peruse.
Consider these factors when you travel to Tanzania or around the U.S., not only will you have a more authentic and culturally-vibrant experience, but you’ll enjoy it even more knowing that you didn’t contribute to predatory companies that harm the Maasai or Native Americans.
Sources
[1] McEvedy, C. (2008). The Penguin Atlas of African history. Paw Prints.
[2] Briggs, P. (2006). Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro & Zanzibar.
[3] Spear, T. T. (1997). Mountain Farmers: Moral Economies of land and agricultural development in Arusha and Meru. University of California Press.
[4] Pearce, F. (2000). Inventing Africa. New Scientist, 167(2251), 30.
[5] Koponen, J. (1996). Population: A Dependent Variable.
[6] Impact of Climate Change in Africa. Blackwell Ecology. (2006, November 24).
[7] Rinderpest. (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://ntz.info/gen/n00526.html
[8] Baumann, O. (1894). Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle. Reimer.
[9] Winship, G. P. (1904). The Journey of Coronado, 1540-1542. A.S. Barnes.
[10] Elam, E. H. “Anglo-American Relations with the Wichita Indians in Texas, 1822–1859.” Master’s Thesis, Texas Technological College, 1967, 11
[11] Hämäläinen Pekka K. (2009). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press.
[12] Days of Darkness: 1820-1934. Wichita and Affiliated Tribes. (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://wichitatribe.com/history/days-of-darkness-1820-1934.aspx
[13] Maasai History and Culture. Basecamp Foundation USA. (2019, September 28). Retrieved July 19, 2022, from https://basecampfoundationusa.org/the-maasai/maasai-history-and-culture/#:~:text=According%20to%20their%20oral%20history,17th%20and%20late%2018th%20century.
[14] Serengeti National Park. Protected Planet. (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://www.protectedplanet.net/2575
[15] Kimeu, C. (2022, June 23). Tanzania charges 20 Maasai with murder after police officer dies during protests. The Guardian. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jun/23/tanzania-charges-20-maasai-with-after-police-officer-dies-during-protests
[16] Watts, J. (2018, May 10). Maasai herders driven off land to make way for luxury safaris, report says. The Guardian. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/10/maasai-herders-driven-off-land-to-make-way-for-luxury-safaris-report-says
[17] Frequently Asked Questions- Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge. Wichita Mountains Wildlife Refuge. (2010, April 8). Retrieved July 20, 2022, from https://www.fws.gov/southwest/refuges/oklahoma/wichitamountains/faq.html
[18] Merchant, Carolyn (2002). The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History. Columbia University Press. p. 148.
[19] Duncan, Dayton; Ken Burns (2009). The National Parks: America’s Best Idea. Alred A. Knopf. pp. 37–38
[20] Fowler, S. (2013). The Commodification of the Native in the 21st Century. Global Societies Journal, 1, 44–53.
[21] Sharland, H. (2024, April 18). Land-grabbing luxury safari tourism is displacing Maasai communities in Tanzania. The Canary. https://www.thecanary.co/global/world-news/2024/04/18/land-grabbing-luxury-safari-tourism-is-displacing-maasai-communities-in-tanzania/
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